تحلیل جنسیتی حمایت عاطفی فرزندان بزرگسال و والدین از یکدیگر در شهر تهران

مدیری, فاطمه; تنها, فاطمه

doi:10.22034/jpai.2024.2027782.1346

تحلیل جنسیتی حمایت عاطفی فرزندان بزرگسال و والدین از یکدیگر در شهر تهران

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

فاطمه مدیری ¹

فاطمه تنها ²

¹ دانشیار گروه مطالعات خانواده، مؤسسه تحقیقات جمعیت کشور، تهران، ایران

² استادیار گروه جمعیت‌شناسی، دانشکده علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران

10.22034/jpai.2024.2027782.1346

چکیده

با توجه به اهمیت روابط نسلی و جنسیتی، در این مقاله به تحلیل جنسیتی حمایت عاطفی میان فرزندان بزرگسال و والدین پرداخته‌ایم. جامعه آماری پیمایش، افراد 18 سال و بالاتر شهر تهران بوده و 1000 نفر از 30 حوزه به‌شیوه خوشه‌ای چندمرحله‌ای، انتخاب شده‌اند. یافته‌ها نشان داده که در حمایت عاطفی والدین و فرزندان بزرگسال از یکدیگر، تفاوت‌های جنسیتی وجود دارد. به‌طوری که حمایت عاطفی پدران و مادران از دختران بیش از پسران و حمایت عاطفی مادران از دختران بیش از حمایت عاطفی پدران از دختران بوده است. در صورت طلاق والدین، حمایت عاطفی پدران از فرزندان کمتر از حمایت عاطفی مادران گزارش شده است. همچنین حمایت عاطفی دختران از پدران و مادران بیش از حمایت عاطفی پسران از پدران و مادران و حمایت عاطفی دختران از مادران بیش از پدران بوده است. حمایت عاطفی دختران و پسران از پدران در صورت طلاق و تضاد والدین، کاهش می‌یابد. به‌طور کلی می‌توان گفت که مادران پیوندهای عاطفی بیشتری با فرزندان خود و به‌ویژه با دختران خود دارند و در طلاق و تضاد والدین، روابط فرزندان بزرگسال با والدین و به‌ویژه با پدر، تضعیف می‌گردد. تقویت پیوندهای عاطفی پدران با فرزندان و تلاش والدین در راستای پایداری زندگی زناشویی پیشنهاد می‌شود.

کلیدواژه‌ها

حمایت عاطفی

والدین

فرزندان بزرگسال

جنسیت

نسل

عنوان مقاله English

Gender Analysis of Emotional Support of Adult Children and Parents to Each Other in Tehran

نویسندگان English

Fateme Modiri ¹

Fateme Tanha ²

¹ Associate Professor of Sociology, Department of Family Studies, National Institute for Population Research Tehran, Iran

² Assistant Professor, Department of Demography, Facullty of Social Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

چکیده English

Considering the importance of generational and gender relations, in this article, we have investigated the gender analysis of emotional support between adult children and parents. The statistical population of this research is people aged 18 years and above in Tehran and were selected 1000 people from 30 districts in a multi-stage cluster method. The findings show that there are gender differences in the emotional support of parents and adult children to each other. So the fathers and mothers supported girls more than boys, and mothers’s emotional support from girls was more than fathers’. In the case of parents' divorce, fathers' emotional support was reported to be less than that of mothers. In addition, girls' emotional support from fathers and mothers was more than boys' emotional support from fathers and mothers, and girls' emotional support from mothers was more than that from fathers. Girls' and boys' emotional support from their fathers decreased in the case of parents’ divorce and conflict. In general, it can be said that mothers have more emotional ties with their children, especially with their daughters, and in divorce and parental conflict, adult children's relationships with their parents, especially with their father, are weakened. It is suggested to strengthen the emotional ties of fathers with their children and the efforts of parents in order to maintain the stability of married life.

Extended Abstract
Introduction
The relationship between parents and adult children has different dimensions. oOne of the most important of which is emotional relationships. Research on emotional relationships in the family is of particular importance. In recent years, although changes have been observed in some areas such as marriage and fertility, the trend of other aspects related to the family, such as the quantity and quality of relationships between children and parents, is controversial (Grundy & Shelton, 2001). It is mainly assumed that intergenerational relations are weakening, but different from this claim, Dykstra and Komter (2006) showed that the description of family structure is not simply possible and should not be focused only on individual reproductive behavior and the relationship between generations (children, parents, and grandparents) should be considered. In studiesy on the emotional relationships between adult children and parents, some researchers have found gender differences and have reported more positive quality in women's relationships (mothers and daughters) (Rossi & Rossi, 1990; Fingerman, 2001; Proulx & Helms, 2008; Campbell et al, 1984). Adult children's relationship with their fathers, especially when the father is separated from the mother, is weakened or may be almost destroyed (Fingerman et al. 2012).
In Iran, there is a positive attitude towards the family, but the change in the emotional life, generational difference, and sometimes generational conflict are from results of some researches (Saroukhani and Sedaghati, 2010; Panahi, 2004; Azad-Aramki et al., 2010; Yousefi, 2013; Danesh et al., 2014). Our knowledge about the relationship between adult children and parents in Iran is limited. These relationships become more important in the lack of government services to provide various resources. The social security system and government services in Iran have a weak performance in supporting the elderly and resolvinge their various needs, as well as investing in the important events of young people's lives, including their education, marriage, and employment (Hesari, 2017). According to the research results and the importance of emotional relationships, the basic question is whether there is a gender differences in the emotional support of adult children and parents to each other.? In the analysis of gender differences in the emotional support of parents and adult children, the theories of intergenerational solidarity, gender socialization, ambivalence theory, and exchange theory can be used. Therefore, there are assumed gender differences in the fathers’ and mothers’ emotional support from girls and boys and gender differences in the girls’ and boys’ emotional support from fathers and mothers.

Methods and Data
This study is descriptive and explanatory with quantitative method and cross-sectional survey technique. The data was extracted from the project entitled "Study on Adult Children Relationship with their Parents: Contact, Support, and Obligation" in 2018 with a questionnaire. The statistical population is people aged 18 years and above in Tehran and 1000 samples from 30 districts of Tehran were selected in a multi-stage cluster method.

Findings
The average mothers’ emotional support was more than that of fathers, and girls had received more support from fathers and mothers, especially from mothers. If the parents had a conflict, the girls’ and boys’ emotional support wais less lower and this negative relationship wais more higher in the emotional support fromobserved regarding fathers. If the parents are were separated, the girls’ and boys’ emotional support wasis lesslower, and this negative relationship wais more higher in emotional support fromregarding fathers. The most negative relationship was observed in the sons’ support from fathers. Boys' emotional support wais significantly higher than from mothers who lived alone. Fathers’ and mothers’ emotional support from girls and especially the mothers’ emotional support from girls has been higher more significantly. Fathers and mothers emotional support who live alone has no significant relationship with their emotional support from sons and daughters. In the case of parents' divorce, fathers' emotional support from daughters and sons was less significantly.

Conclusion and Discussion
In general, there are gender differences in the emotional support between parents and adult children.Mothers have more emotional ties with theirchildren, especially with their daughters, and in divorce and parental conflict, adult children's relationships with their parents, especially with their fathers, are weakened.
Regarding the effect of support and emotional relationships on the quality of life and various dimensions of mental and physical health, especially for parents, which was mentioned in some studies (Onayli, 2010; Mandemakers & Dykstra, 2008; Greene, 1990), emotional support is less from fathers can have negative consequences in their mental and physical health. Since, according to the findings of this research, emotional support from parents, especially fathers, decreases in marital conflict and parental divorce, efforts to strengthen the family can, by increasing intergenerational support for fathers, reduce the negative consequences of the lack of emotional support in terms of their quality of life and mental and physical health. This research finding revealed another dimension of the positive consequences of family consolidation, which is the emotional support of parents, especially fathers. In this direction and in order to strengthen the emotional relationships between parents and adult children, it is suggested to strengthen the relationship between fathers and children, especially with sons, the lack of tension and marital conflict between parents, and efforts to maintain marital life. Considering the findings of this research and considering the lack of conceptual studies and lived experience in the field of why there are gender differences in emotional support for parents, it is suggested that qualitative studies be conducted with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of gender differences in emotional support between parents and adult children.

Acknowledgments
This article is extracted from the project approved by the National Institute for Population Research, titled "Study on Adult Children's Relationships with Parents: Contact, Support, and Obligation", and thanks are hereby given of material and spiritual support of the institute.

کلیدواژه‌ها English

Emotional support

Parents

Adult children

Gender

Generation

آزاد ارمکی، تقی (1395). تغییرات، چالش‌ها و آینده خانواده ایرانی، تهران: تیسا.

آزاد ‌ارمکی، تقی، کوششی، مجید، پروائی، شیوا (1398). سالمندان و ناامنی تعاملات بین‌نسلی در خانواده‌های امروزی، فصلنامه انجمن ایرانی مطالعات فرهنگی و ارتباطات، 16(59)، 44-11. https://doi.org/10.22034/jcsc.2020.104410.1863

آزاد‌ارمکی، تقی، مدیری، فاطمه، وکیلی، عارف (1389). خانواده‌ی ایرانی، فروپاشی یا تغییرات بنیادی با بررسی نقش آموزش عمومی/همگانی در بهبود وضع موجود، خانواده و پژوهش، 9، 84-63. https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1059842

پناهی، محمد‌حسین (1383). شکاف نسلی موجود در ایران و اثر تحصیلات بر آن، فصلنامه علوم اجتماعی، 11(27)، 41-1. https://doi.org/20.1001.1.17351162.1383.11.27.1.3

حصاری، علی (1396). الگوها و عوامل تعیین‌کننده انتقالات بین نسل‌های والدین سالمند و فرزندان بزرگسال در شهر تهران، پایان‌نامه دکتری جمعیت‌شناسی، دانشگاه تهران: دانشکده علوم اجتماعی.

دانش، پروانه، ذاکری‌نصرآبادی، زهرا، و عبداللهی، عظیمه‌سادات (1393). تحلیل جامعه‌شناختی شکاف نسلی در ایران، جامعه‌پژوهی فرهنگی، 5(3)، 30-1. https://socialstudy.ihcs.ac.ir/article_1701.html

دواس، دی. ای. (1386). پیمایش در تحقیقات اجتماعی، (ترجمه هوشنگ نایبی)، تهران: نشر نی.

ساروخانی، باقر و صداقتی‌فرد، مجتبی (1388). شکاف نسلی در خانواده‌های ایرانی؛ دیدگاه‌ها و بینش‌ها، پژوهش‌نامه علوم اجتماعی، 3(4)، 31-7. https://sid.ir/paper/177021/fa

شکوهی، شیما (1391). بررسی تأثیر روابط بین‌نسلی بر ترتیبات زندگی سالمندان 60 سال و بالاتر شهر شیراز، پایان‌نامه کارشناسی‌ارشد، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی.

علی‌پور، فردین، سجادی، حمیرا، فرزوان، آمنه و بیگلریان، اکبر (1387). نقش حمایت‌های اجتماعی در کیفیت زندگی سالمندان، رفاه اجتماعی، 9(33)، 165-147.
http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1862-fa.html

فرهمند، مهناز، خرم‌پور، یاسمن، پارسیان، زهره، و ماندگاری، فرزانه (1393). تأثیر مؤلفه‌های نوگرایی در حمایت خویشاوندی خانواده‌های شهر یزد، تحقیقات فرهنگی ایران، 7(3)، 177-149. https://doi.org/10.7508/ijcr.2014.27.007

کریمی، زینب (1386). بررسی عوامل جامعه‌شناختی و جمعیت‌شناختی مؤثر بر حمایت بین‌نسلی (فرزندان بزرگسال-والدین)، پایان‌نامه کارشناسی‌ارشد جمعیت‌شناسی، دانشگاه تهران: دانشکده علوم اجتماعی.

کوششی، مجید (1387). شبکه حمایت خانوادگی، ترتیبات زندگی و سلامت سالخوردگان در بستر گذار جمعیتی، پایان‌نامه دکتری جمعیت‌شناسی، دانشگاه تهران: دانشکده علوم اجتماعی.

کوششی، مجید، سعیدی، علی‌اصغر و پروائی، شیوا (1392). تأثیر حمایت‌های اجتماعی غیررسمی بر کیفیت زندگی سالمندان بازنشسته به مشابه یک مسئله اجتماعی: مطالعه صندوق تأمین‌اجتماعی و صندوق صنعت نفت، بررسی مسائل اجتماعی ایران، 4(1)، 130-109. https://doi.org/10.22059/ijsp.2013.50661

مدیری، فاطمه (1399). بررسی حمایت فرزندان بزرگسال از والدین و عوامل اثرگذار بر آن در شهر تهران، مطالعات جمعیتی، 6(2)، 32-3. https://jips.nipr.ac.ir/article_122585.html

مدیری، فاطمه و کوششی، مجید (1400). بررسی حمایت والدین از فرزندان بزرگسال و عوامل اثرگذار بر آن در شهر تهران، مجله جامعه‌شناسی ایران، 22(2)، 103-77. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.17351901.1400.22.2.4.2

مرکز آمار ایران (1395)، نتایج سرشماری عمومی نفوس و مسکن سال 1395. تهران، مرکز آمار ایران.

یوسفی، نریمان (1392). شکاف ارزشی بین‌نسلی در خانواده‌های تهرانی، راهبرد اجتماعی فرهنگی، 2(7)، 240-213. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22517081.1392.2.2.7.3

Alipoor F, Sajadi H, Forozan A, Biglarian A. (2009). The role of social support in elderly quality of life, [Persian], Social Welfare / Refah Ejtemaei, 8(33), 149-167. [In Persian]. http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1862-en.html

Allen, M.S. (2002). The influence of parents' marital quality on parent-adult child intimacy: The role of the family expressiveness and relationship attributions, Texas Tech University.

Attias-Donfut, C., Ogg, J., and Wolff, F.C. (2005). European patterns of intergenerational financial and time transfers, European Journal of Ageing, 2(3), 161-173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-005-0008-7

AzadAramaki, T. (2015). Changes, Challenges and the Future of the Iranian Family, Tehran: Tisa. [In Persian].

AzadAramaki, T., Madiri, F., Vakili, A. (2010). Iranian family, collapse or fundamental changes by examining the role of public education in improving the current situation, Family and Research, 9, 63-84. [In Persian], https://www.noormags.ir/view/fa/articlepage/1059842

AzadArmaki, T., Koosheshi, M., and Parvaei, Sh. (2020). The Elderly and Intergenerational Relations Insecurity among the Contemporary Families, Cultural Studies and Communication, 16(59), 11-44. [In Persian], https://doi.org/10.22034/jcsc.2020.104410.1863

Bengtson, V.L. (2001). Beyond the nuclear family: the increasing importance of multigenerational bonds. Journal of Marriage Family, 63(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00001.x

Bengtson, V.L., & Roberts, R.E. (1991). Intergenerational solidarity in aging families: An example of formal theory construction, Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(4), 856-870. https://doi.org/10.2307/352993

Bengtson, V.L., and Oyama, P.S. (2007). Intergenerational solidarity: Strengthening economic and social ties, New York: United Nations Headquarters.

Bernheim, B., Douglas, A.S., and Lawrence, S. (1985). The Strategic Bequest Motive, Journal of Political Economy, 93(6), 1045-1076. https://doi.org/10.1086/261351

Campbell, E., Adams, G.R., and Dobson, W.R. (1984). Familial correlates of identity formation in late adolescence: A study of the predictive utility of connectedness and individuality in family relations, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13(6), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02088596

Choi, K., Jeon, G., and Jang, K. S. (2020). Gender Differences in the Impact of Intergenerational Support on Depressive Symptoms among Older Adults in Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4380. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124380

Daatland, S. O., Herlofson, K., and Lima, I.A. (2011). Balancing generations: on the strength and character of family norms in the West and East of Europe, Ageing and Society, 31(7), 1159-1179. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X10001315

Daatland, S. O., Veenstra, M., and Herlofson, K. (2012). Age and intergenerational attitudes in the family and the welfare state. Advances in life course research, 17(3), 133-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcr.2012.01.005

Danesh, P., Zakeri Nasrabadi, Z., and Abdellahi, A.S. (2014). Sociological Analysis of the Generation Gap in Iran, [Persian], Sociological Cultural Studies, 5(3), 1-30. https://socialstudy.ihcs.ac.ir/article_1701.html

Duas, D. E. (2007). Survey in Social Research, (Translated to Persian by Hooshang Nayebi), Tehran: Ney Publication.

Dykstra, P.A., and Komter, A.E. (2006). Structural characteristics of Dutch kin networks. Family solidarity in the Netherlands, 21-42. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241884013

Eggebeen, D. and Wilhelm, M. (1995). Six Patterns of Support Given by Older Americans to Their Children. In Bass, S. (Ed), Older and Active: How Americans over 55 Are Contributing to Society (pp. 122-168). New Haven: Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300157659-008

Farahmand, M., KhorramPoor, Y., Parsaeeian, Z., and Mandegari, F. (2014). The Effect of Modernization Componentsin the Kinship Support of Yazd Families, Journal of Iranian Cultural Research, 7(3), 149-177. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.7508/ijcr.2014.27.007

Fingerman K.L., Cheng, Y.P. Wesselman, ED., Zarit, S., Furstenberg, F.F., and Birditt, K.S. (2012). Helicopter parents and landing pad kids: intense parental support in adulthood. Journal of Marriage Family, 74(4), 880-896. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00987.x

Fingerman, K. L. (2001). Aging mothers and their adult daughters: A study in mixed emotions. New York: Springer.

Fingerman, K.L., Pitzer, L.M., Chan, W., Birditt, KS., Franks, M.M., and Zarit, S. (2011). Who gets what and why: help middle-aged adults provide to parents and grown children, Journals of Gerontology - Series B Psychological Sciences, 66(1), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbq009

Fingerman, K.L., Sechrist, J., and Birditt, K. (2013). Changing Views on Intergenerational Ties. Gerontology, 59(1), 64-70. https://doi.org/10.1159/000342211

Fivush, R., Brotman, M.A., Buckner, J.P., and Goodman, S. (2000). Gender Differences in Parent–Child Emotion Narrative. Sex Roles, 42(3), 233-253. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1023/A:1007091207068

Gierveld, D., and. Dykstra, P.A (2002). The long-term rewards of parenting: Older adults’ marital history and the likelihood of receiving support from adult children, Ageing International, 27(3), 49–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12126-003-1002-z

Graaf, P., and Fokkema, T. (2007). Contacts between Divorced and Non-Divorced Parents and Their Adult Children in the Netherlands: An Investment Perspective, European Sociological Review, 23(2), 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcl032

Greene, B.A. (1990). What has gone before: The legacy of racism and sexism in the lives of Black mothers and daughters, Women and Therapy, 9(1-2), 207-230. https://doi.org/10.1300/J015v09n01_12

Grundy, E., and Shelton, N. (2001). Contact between Adult Children and Their Parents in Great Britain 1986–99. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 33(4), 685–697. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a33165

Hagestad, G. O. (1986). Dimensions of time and the family. American Behavioral Scientist, 29(6), 679–694. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276486029006004

Hesari, A. (2017). Patterns and determinants of transitions between generations of elderly parents and adult children in Tehran, PhD dissertation in Demography, University of Tehran, [In Persian].

Huang, F., and Fue, P. (2021). Intergenerational support and subjective wellbeing among oldest-old in China: the moderating role of economic status. BMC Geriatrics, 21(1) 252. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02204-y

Jamieson, L., and Toynbee, C. (1989). Shifting patterns of parental authority, 1900– 1980. In H. Corr and L. Jamieson (eds.), The Politics of Everyday Life (pp: 86–113), London: Macmillan.

Jia, Y. H., and Ye, Z.H. (2019). Impress of intergenerational emotional support on the depression in non-cohabiting parents, World Journal Clin Cases, 7(21), 3407–3418. https://doi.org/10.12998/wjcc.v7.i21.3407

Kalmijn, M. (2014). Adult intergenerational relationships, The Wiley-Blackwell companion to the sociology of families (pp. 385–403). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118374085.ch19

Karimi, Z. (2006). Study on the sociological and demographic factors affecting intergenerational support (adult children-parents), Master's Thesis in Demography, University of Tehran: Faculty of Social Sciences. [In Persian].

Kenny, M.E., and Donaldson, G.A. (1992). The relationship of parental attachment and psychological separation to the adjustment of first-year college women, Journal of College Student Development, 33(5), 431-438. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-19561-001

Kim, K., Fingerman, K.L., Birditt, K.S., Zarit, and Steven, H. (2015). Capturing Between- and Within-Family Differences in Parental Support to Adult Children: A Typology Approach, Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 71(6), 1034–1045. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv029

Kohli, M., and Künemund, H. (2003). Intergenerational transfers in the family: What motivates giving. In: Vern L. Bengtson & Ariela Lowenstein (eds.), Global Aging and Challenges to Families (pp: 123-142) New York. Aldine de Gruyter. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243609975

Koosheshi, M. (2007). Family support network, living arrangements and health of the elderly in the context of demographic transition, PhD dissertation in demography, University of Tehran: Faculty of Social Sciences. [In Persian].

Koosheshi, M., Saeidi, A.A., and Parvaei, S. (2013). Impact of Informal Social Support on Elders as a Social Problem in Social Security Fund and Oil Industry Fund in Iran, Journal of Social Problems of Iran, 4(1), 109-130. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22059/ijsp.2013.50661

Kuligina, N., and Dobelniece, S. (2022). Intergenerational solidarity in family influencing factors. 8^th International Multidisciplinary Research Conference, https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202213101002

Lapsley, D. K., Rice, K. G., and Shadid, G. E. (1989). Psychological separation and adjustment to college. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36(3), 286-294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.36.3.286

Liu, Y., Li, L., Miao, G., Yang, X., Wu, Y., Xu, Y., Gao, Y., Zhan, Y., Zhong, Y., and Yang, S. (2022). Relationship between Children’s Intergenerational Emotional Support and Subjective Well-Being among Middle-Aged and Elderly People in China: The Mediation Role of the Sense of Social Fairness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 389. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010389

Lopez, F.G., Campbell, V.L., and Watkins, C.E. (1989). Effects of marital conflict and family coalition patterns on college student adjustment, Journal of College Student Development, 30(1), 46-52.

Lowenstein, A. (2007). Solidarity-conflict and ambivalence: testing two conceptual frameworks and their impact on quality of life for older family members. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(2), S100-7. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/62.2.s100

Mandemakers, J.J., and Dykstra, P.A. (2008). Discrepancies in parent’s and adult child’s reports of support and contact. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(2), 495-506. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00496.x

Modiri, F. (2021). The Study on the adult children’ s supports for their parents and the influencing factors in Tehran, [Persian], Iranian Population Studies, 6(2), 3-32. [In Persian]. https://jips.nipr.ac.ir/article_122585.html

Modiri, F., koosheshi, M. (2021). A Study of Parents' Support for Adult Children and the Factors Affecting it in Tehran, Iranian Journal of Sociology, 22(2), 77-103. [In Persian]. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.17351901.1400.22.2.4.2

Onayli, S. (2010). The relation between mother-daughter relationship and daughter’s well being. Master Thesis, Middle East Technical University. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12612609/index.pdf

Panahi, M.H. (2004). The Impact of Education on the Existing Generation Gap in Iran, Social Sciences, 11(27), 1-41. [In Persian], https://doi.org/20.1001.1.17351162.1383.11.27.1.3

Proulx, C.M., & Helms, H.M. (2008). Mothers’ and Fathers’ Perceptions of Change and Continuity in Their Relationships with Young Adult Sons and Daughters. Journal of Family Issues, 29(2), 234-261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X07307855

Rossi A.S., Rossi P.H. (1990). Of Human Bonding: Parent-Child Relations across the Life Course. Amsterdam, Aldine de Gruyter.

Šadl, Z., Hlebec, V. (2010). Emotional support and intergenerational solidarity, Teorija in praksa, 47(6), 1150-1170. http://dk.fdv.uni-lj.si/db/pdfs/tip20106_sadl_hlebec.pdf

Saroukhani, B., Sedaghati-Fard, M. (2010). Generation gap in Iranian Family: Approaches and Theories, Social Sciences Bulletin, 3(4), 7-31. [In Persian]. https://sid.ir/paper/177021/en

Scabini, E., Galimberti, C. (1995). Adolescents and young adults: A transition in the family, Journal of Adolescence, 18(5), 593-606. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1995.1041

Shokohi, S. (2012). Study on the impact of intergenerational relationships on the living arrangements of the elderly 60 years and above in Shiraz, Master's thesis, Allameh Tabatabai University. [In Persian].

Silverstein, M., Gans, D., and Yang, F (2006). Intergenerational Support to Aging Parents: The role of Norms and Needs. Journal of family Issues, 27(8), 1068-1084. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X06288120

Spitze, G., and Logan, J. (1990). More evidence on women (and men) in the middle, Research on Aging, 12(2), 182–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027590122003

Statistical Center of Iran (2016), Results of 2016 General Census of Population and Housing, Tehran, Statistical Centre of Iran.

Suitor, J.J., Pillemer, K., and Sechrist, J. (2006). Within-family differences in mothers' support to adult children, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61(1), S10-S17. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/61.1.S10

Szydlik, M. (2008). Intergenerational solidarity and conflict, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 39(1), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.39.1.97

Yousefi, N. (2013). Intergenerational value gap in Tehranian families, Social and Cultural Strategy, 2(7), 213-240. [In Persian]. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22517081.1392.2.2.7.3

Zeng, T., Yang, Y., and Man, S. (2022). How Does Family Intergenerational Relationships Affect the Life Satisfaction of Middle-Aged and Elderly Parents in Urban Only-Child Families in Chengdu, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8704. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148704

Zhou, J., and Bai, X. (2022). Influence of intergenerational relationships on depressive symptoms in ageing Chinese adults in Hong Kong: Mediating effects of sense of loneliness. BMC Geriatrics, 22(1), 587. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-022-03269-z